O trem e a "senhorita espanhola": a epidemia de gripe em Diamantina, 1918 / The train and the "Spanish señorita": the flu epidemic in Diamantina, 1918

Resumo O artigo analisa a epidemia de gripe de 1918 em Diamantina, no interior de Minas Gerais. A partir de fontes bibliográficas e documentais, discute como o ramal ferroviário da Estrada de Ferro Vitória a Minas, inaugurado em 1914, contribuiu para a chegada da doença à cidade que, até então, era representada no discurso de suas elites como isolada e salubre. Aborda as imbricadas relações entre a expansão dos sistemas de transportes pelo interior do Brasil, o meio ambiente, o conhecimento científico e os processos saúde/doença.

Abstract The article analyzes the influenza epidemic in 1918 in Diamantina, a town in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Bibliographic and documental sources are used to investigate the influence of the Vitória-Minas railroad (Estrada de Ferro Vitória a Minas), opened in 1914, on the arrival of the disease in the town, which had until then been represented in the discourse of its elites as insalubrious and isolated. The interrelations between the spread of transportation systems across Brazil, the environment, scientific knowledge, and health-disease processes are discussed.

Los microbios de Linneo / Linnaeus' microbes

Resumen Uno de los grandes genios de la biología fue el médico sueco Carlos Linneo (1707-1778). Se lo denominó princeps botanicorum por su gran aporte a la clasificación de las plantas. Sin embargo, su fama imperecedera se debe a su obra Systema Naturae en que crea un sistema taxonómico binomial para clasificar a todos los seres vivos y no vivos en tres reinos: el reino mineral, el reino vegetal y el reino animal. En su esquema taxonómico, los animalículos o microorganismos descubiertos por el sabio neerlandés Antoine van Leeuwenhoek en 1676, fueron clasificados tentativamente en el reino animal, dentro de la clase Vermes o Gusanos. La idea de que estos animalitos fueran la causa de las enfermedades infecciosas fue planteada por Linneo y desarrollada en profundidad por Johannes C. Nyander y Johannes Carolus Roos, dos de sus discípulos, quienes publicaron esta idea en sus tesis Exanthemata viva en 1757 y Mundus invisibilis en 1767, respectivamente.

Abstract One of the great geniuses of biology was the Swedish physician Carlos Linnaeus (1707-1778). He was called princeps botanicorum for his great contribution to the classification of plants. However, his undying fame is due to his work Systema Naturae in which he creates a binomial taxonomic system to classify all living and non-living beings into three kingdoms: the mineral kingdom, the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. In his taxonomic scheme, the animalicles or microorganisms discovered by the Dutch scholar Antoine van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, were tentatively classified in the animal kingdom, within the class Vermes or Worms. The idea that these little animals were the cause of infectious diseases was imagined by Linnaeus and developed in depth by Johannes C. Nyander and Johannes Carolus Roos, two of his disciples, who published this idea in their theses Exanthemata viva in 1757 and Mundus invisibilis in 1767, respectively.

Historia y futuro de las pandemias / History and future of pandemics

Este artículo presenta una historia general de las epidemias históricas y de las nuevas enfermedades emergentes, señalando sus factores desencadenantes. Se afirma que las epidemias son inevitables, y que su riesgo aumenta en proporción al tamaño, la complejidad y el poder tecnológico de nuestras sociedades. La historia enseña que las epidemias han sido casi siempre desencadenadas por cambios en el ambiente ocasionados por las propias actividades humanas. Las enfermedades infecciosas son manifestación de una interacción ecológica entre la especie humana y otra especie de microorganismos. Y las epidemias son resultado del cambio en algún factor ambiental capaz de influir en esa interacción. Las catástrofes epidémicas son inevitables: en primer lugar, porque no podemos evitar formar parte de cadenas tróficas en las que comemos y somos comidos por los microbios; en segundo lugar, porque las infecciones son mecanismos evolutivos y factores reguladores del equilibrio ecológico, que regulan sobre todo el tamaño de las poblaciones; y, en tercer lugar, porque las intervenciones técnicas humanas, al modificar los equilibrios previos, crean equilibrios nuevos que son más vulnerables. De este modo las sociedades humanas son más vulnerables cuanto más complejas. Y los éxitos humanos en la modificación de condiciones ambientales conservan, o más bien aumentan, el riesgo de catástrofes epidémicas. Todas las necesarias medidas de vigilancia y control epidemiológico imaginables pueden disminuir los daños que producen las epidemias, pero nunca podrán evitarlas.

This article presents a general history of historical epidemics, and new emerging diseases, pointing out their triggers. It is claimed that epidemics are inevitable, and that their risk increases in proportion to the size, complexity, and technological power of our societies. History teaches that epidemics have almost always been triggered by changes in the environment caused by human activities themselves. Infectious diseases are manifestations of an ecological interaction between the human species and another species of microorganisms. And epidemics are the result of a change in some environmental factor capable of influencing that interaction. Epidemic catastrophes are inevitable: firstly, because we cannot help but be part of trophic chains in which we eat and are eaten by microbes; secondly, because infections are evolutionary mechanisms and regulatory factors of ecological balance, which regulate especially the size of populations; and thirdly, because human technical interventions, in changing previous balances, create new balances that are more vulnerable. In this way human societies are more vulnerable the more complex. And human successes in modifying environmental conditions retain, or rather increase, the risk of epidemic catastrophes. All necessary epidemiological surveillance and control measures imaginable can lessen the damage caused by epidemics, but they can never prevent them.

La columna infame de Milán en tiempos de pandemia / Milan's infamous column in times of pandemic

Las épocas de pandemia han despertado y despiertan miedo en individuos y pánico en sus comunidades. En este artículo el autor repasa brevemente los hechos históricos ocurridos durante La Gran Plaga (pandemia de peste bubónica) que dieron lugar a la denominada Columna Infame de Milán, haciendo un paralelismo con algunas situaciones de criminalización de los enfermos e individuos afectados por la actual pandemia de SARS-Cov-2. (AU)

De "culpables" a "víctimas": expansión y profesionalización del sistema de salud en la provincia Mendoza a fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX / From "culprits" to "victims": the expansion and professionalization of the healthcare system in the province of Mendoza in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century

RESUMEN Entre fines del siglo XIX y comienzos del XX, la provincia de Mendoza presentaba un estado sanitario marcado por el crecimiento demográfico y urbanístico, la escasez de los servicios públicos y la destrucción de la antigua ciudad colonial como consecuencia del terremoto de 1861, lo que propiciaba un ambiente favorable para el desarrollo de diversas enfermedades infectocontagiosas. El objetivo de este artículo es indagar cómo se fue profesionalizando y expandiendo el sistema de salud en la provincia de Mendoza a fines del siglo XIX e inicios del XX, y cómo esos factores, junto con las representaciones sobre la enfermedad que predominaban en el discurso de la elite gobernante, incidieron en las políticas públicas para combatir las dolencias de la época. Para ello se consultaron diversos documentos escritos y fotográficos que permitieron analizar las modificaciones del discurso y las políticas públicas implementadas.

ABSTRACT From the late 19th century to the beginning of the 20th, the province of Mendoza presented problematic sanitary conditions due to rapid demographic and urban growth, the scarcity of public services, and the poor state of the old colonial city (destroyed by the 1861 earthquake), which facilitated the spread of various infectious diseases. The objective of this article is to inquire into the ways in which the healthcare system in the province of Mendoza both expanded and became increasingly professionalized from the late 19th to early 20th century. We explore how these factors, along with the predominant social representations of disease that permeated the discourses of governing elites, influenced public policy aimed at combating the diseases of the time. To that end, we consulted a wide range of written documents and photographic material that allowed us to analyze changes in discourse as well as public policy.

El niño con enfermedades infecciosas en las artes visuales: pintura / The child with infectious diseases in the visual arts: painting

Resumen: El impacto catastrófico de las enfermedades infecciosas sobre la salud infantil, como también el rol trascendental y benéfico aportado por la instauración y ejecución de medidas sanitarias y de inmuno- prevención ha sido un tema recurrente en la historia de la medicina, aunque una vez logrado el con trol de la enfermedad, estas pasan fácilmente al olvido. Ante esto, parece necesario rememorar aquel escenario social mediante un acercamiento a través de la pintura. Las obras pictóricas son testigo de aquello, pues las enfermedades son objeto de representación y a su vez se han convertido en un in valuable documento en la historia de la medicina. Patologías pediátricas como tuberculosis, difteria, poliomielitis, sarampión, viruela y sífilis como también el inicio de la vacunación, son analizadas en diversas pinturas con el objetivo de profundizar el conocimiento de la época histórica, el autor y su vínculo con dicha enfermedad.

Abstract: The catastrophic impact of infectious diseases on children's health, as well the transcendental and be neficial role played by the establishment and execution of health measures and immunoprevention, has been a recurrent subject in the history of medicine, although once the disease has been controlled, they are easily forgotten. In view of this, it seems necessary to recall that social scenario through an approach through painting. The pictorial works are witnesses of that since diseases are subject of representation, and at the same time, they have become an invaluable document in the history of me dicine. Pediatric pathologies such as tuberculosis, diphtheria, polio, measles, smallpox, and syphilis, as well as the initiation of vaccination, are analyzed in various paintings with the aim of deepening knowledge of the historical era, the author and his or her link to this disease.

Juan Nicolás Dávalos Betancourt y Federico Grande Rossi: dos amigos y una profesión / Juan Nicolás Dávalos Betancourt y Federico Grande Rossi: two friends, one profession

El papel desempeñado por destacados científicos cubanos y matanceros como Juan Nicolás Dávalos Betancourt y Federico Grande Rossi fue fundamental en el desarrollo de la bacteriología en el país. Con este trabajo se pretende acercar a estos dos hombres unidos en la vida como grandes amigos y en la profesión. Juan Nicolás Dávalos Betancourt conocido como "el sabio que soñaba con las bacterias" trasciende su campo de trabajo particular y se proyecta en el desarrollo de nuestra nación. Federico Grande Rossi fue médico bacteriólogo y fecundo escritor (AU).

The role played by eminent Cuban and Matanzasan scientist like Juan Nicolas Davalos Betancourt and Federico Grandi Rossi was essential for the development of the bacteriology in the country. With this work the authors pretend to bring near these two men who were very close in life as friends and colleagues in their profession. Juan Nicolas Davalos Betancourt, known as "the scholar who dreamed with bacteria" went beyond his particular work field and entered the process of development of Cuban nation. Federico Grandi Rossi was a doctor-bacteriologist and a prolific writer (AU).

Notas para la historia del Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Prof. Doctor Lucio Córdova L. Santiago de Chile / Notes for the history about the Doctor Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital

Resumen El autor presenta una reseña histórica sobre la creación del Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Dr. Lucio Córdova. El Dr. Lucio Córdova, Consejero de la Honorable Junta de Beneficencia en 1938, impulsó la creación de un pabellón modelo para la hospitalización de enfermos con procesos transmisibles. Un brote de meningitis meningocóccica, entre 1941 y 1942 apresuró la construcción del Pabellón de Enfermedades Infecciosas, que estuvo terminado en 1949. Se destaca la importante labor del primer médico jefe del nuevo Servicio doctor Roque Kraljevic. En 1963, el Pabellón de Enfermedades Infecciosas se transformó en el Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Dr. Lucio Córdova.

The author presents a historical review about the creation of Doctor Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital. Lucio Cordova MD, Counselor of the Charity Board in 1938, promoted a model pavilion for the hospitalization of patients with communicable diseases. An outbreak of meningococcal meningitis, between 1941 and 1942, hurried the construction of the Infectious Disease Pavilion, which was finished in 1949. The important work of the first chief of the new unit, Roque Kraljevic MD, is highlighted. In 1963, the Infectious Disease Pavilion was transformed into Dr. Lucio Cordova Infectious Diseases Hospital.

La tuberculosis en Rosario. Aproximaciones a una historia sociocultural de la enfermedad / Tuberculosis in Rosario. Approaches to a sociocultural history ofthe disease

En el año del centenario de la inauguración del edificio propio de la Liga Argentina contra la Tuberculosis, este artículo analiza en una primera parte las razones de su localización en la ciudad de Rosario a principios del siglo XX; y en una segunda parte el discurso a favor de este proyecto desde las páginas de la Revista Médica de Rosario con el objetivo de mostrar la existencia de una particular forma de entender la atención de la salud.

At the year of the centennial inauguration of the Liga Argentina contra la Tuberculosis house, this article firstly analyzes the purpose of its location in Rosario city at the beginning of the twentieth century; secondly, the speech from the Revista Médica de Rosario in order to show a particular way of understanding the health assistance.

A clausura enferma: petições para a saída do Convento da Ajuda no Rio de Janeiro para tratamento de doenças contagiosas, c. 1750-1780 / Disease in the cloisters: requests to leave Convento da Ajuda, Rio de Janeiro, for the treatment of contagious diseases, c. 1750-1780

Resumo O artigo discute os pedidos de freiras do Convento da Ajuda para deixar a clausura a fim de curar doenças contagiosas. O padecimento dessas doenças era considerado uma das poucas exceções para permitir a saída das freiras. As ordens femininas guardavam estritamente a clausura, condição necessária para manter o recato de virgens consagradas a Cristo. A documentação contém detalhes sobre as causas e as formas de transmissão das doenças, bem como sobre os tipos de tratamento para combatê-las. Por fim, os processos esclarecem os procedimentos adotados fora da clausura para as freiras não colocarem em risco o recolhimento e a honra, quando iam buscar em locais distantes o tratamento adequado para aquelas doenças.

Abstract This article discusses the requests submitted by nuns from Convento da Ajuda (Ajuda Convent) to leave their life of enclosure to receive treatment for contagious diseases. Disease was one of the few cases in which nuns were granted permission to leave. The female orders were strictly cloistered in order to preserve their purity as virgins consecrated to Christ. Extant documents detail the causes of the diseases, the ways they were transmitted, and the treatments used to fight them. These processes shed light on the procedures adopted outside the cloisters so that the nuns did not jeopardize their reclusion and honor when they went to distant places in search of treatment.

“ Doentes e incapazes para marchar”: vida e morte no exército da Companhia Neerlandesa das Índias Ocidentais no Nordeste do Brasil, 1630-1654 / “ Sick and unable to march: ” life and death in the army of the Dutch West India Company in the Northeast of Brazil, 1630-1654

Dos diversos males que infligiram o exército da Companhia das Índias Ocidentais em seus anos de atividade no Brasil, poucos podem ser comparados às doenças. São escassos, todavia, os dados quantitativos apresentados na historiografia para mostrar seu impacto nas tropas. Além dos índices de baixas por doença que ceifavam muitos militares, sabe-se pouco sobre os tratamentos médicos oferecidos, as principais doenças que atingiam a tropa e suas causas. Este artigo traz elementos que ajudam a compreender aspectos pouco trabalhados em termos quantitativos e sistemáticos pela historiografia e demonstra como as doenças afligiam a companhia e embaraçavam suas ações no território.

Of the many evils that were inflicted upon the army of the West India Company in its years of activity in Brazil, few could be compared to diseases. However, there is little quantitative data in the field of historiography regarding the impact of disease on these troops. Apart from the limited amount of information about the diseases that affected many soldiers, little is known about the medical treatments that were available, the main diseases that affected the troops, and what were the causes. This article provides information to understand aspects that have been little studied in quantitative and systematic terms in the field of historiography, and demonstrates how the diseases afflicted the Company and affected its actions in the territory.

Rudolf Kraus em busca do "ouro da ciência": a diversidade tropical e a elaboração de novas terapêuticas, 1913-1923 / Rudolf Kraus in search of the "gold of science": tropical diversity and the development of new treatments, 1913-1923

Com base na trajetória de Rudolf Kraus, o artigo analisa a busca de curas para doenças infecciosas em regiões tropicais no início do século XX, dando especial atenção à elaboração por Kraus de novos terapêuticos biológicos como soros, vacinas e soluções proteicas. As regiões tropicais eram com frequência apresentadas como mais propícias à pesquisa devido à maior quantidade de organismos a identificar e também à concorrência supostamente menor entre pares. Os trópicos eram, assim, considerados um oásis para as pesquisas microbiológicas. Kraus dedicou-se à fabricação de diversos produtos de origem biológica, mas não teve o sucesso esperado com muitos deles.

Based on the career of Rudolf Kraus, the article analyzes the search for cures to infectious diseases in tropical regions in the early twentieth century, focusing especially on Kraus' development of new biological treatments like sera, vaccines, and protein solutions. At that time, the world's tropical regions were often portrayed as more propitious for research, given the larger number of organisms that could be identified in these realms and an allegedly lower level of peer competition as well. The tropics were thus seen as an oasis for microbiological research. Kraus dedicated himself to the production of various products of biological origin, but he failed to achieve his hoped-for success with many of them.

Anotaciones históricas sobre el Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Francisco Javier Muñiz de Buenos Aires, Argentina / Historical notes on Infectious Diseases Hospital Francisco Javier Muñiz in Buenos Aires, Argentina

The Infectious Diseases Hospital Francisco Javier Muñiz, Buenos Aires, Argentina, is the oldest in Latin America. It is over 100 years old and has a history worthy of pride. It became known as "Hospital of the pests" and was preceded by the old House of Insulation, which served as a quarantine station during epidemics of cholera, yellow fever and smallpox. The new House of Insulation, built in the neighborhood of Parque Patricios ("Barracks Hospital"), was renamed in 1904 in memory of Francisco Javier Muñiz, a former military doctor, naturalist and paleontologist. Its technical name is "Porteño Care Centre and National Reference Regional Infectious-Contagious Disease". It receives numerous national and foreign undergraduate and postgraduate students in its Departments of Infectious Diseases and Respiratory Diseases.

El Hospital de Enfermedades Infecciosas Francisco Javier Muñiz, de Buenos Aires, República Argentina, es el más antiguo de América Latina, con más de 100 años de existencia y una historia digna de orgullo; fue conocido como "Hospital de las pestes". Antecedido por la antigua Casa de Aislamiento, que sirvió de lazareto durante epidemias de cólera, fiebre amarilla y viruela. La nueva Casa de Aislamiento, construida en el barrio Parque Patricios ("Hospital de Barracas"), pasó a denominarse en 1904, Hospital Francisco Javier Muñiz, por quien fuera médico militar, naturalista y paleontólogo. Su nombre técnico es "Centro Asistencial Porteño de Referencia Nacional y Regional de Enfermedades Infecto-Contagiosas" y recibe a numerosos alumnos nacionales y extranjeros, en sus Cátedras de Enfermedades Infecciosas y de Tisio-neumología, para docencia de pre y post-grado.